Preschool education programs

There is strong evidence that preschool participation increases academic achievement and improves children’s cognitive and social skills (McCoy 2017, Garcia-Carrion 2016, CG-Health Equity, Camilli 2010, Manning 2010, Burger 2010). Effects are strongest immediately following preschool but can persist (CG-Health Equity, Burger 2010, Ansari 2018), especially if combined with continued support in later school years (Ansari 2018, Ansari 2018a, Brookings-Sawhill 2015). Additional research is needed to determine which components of comprehensive preschool programs (e.g., teacher training, curriculum, class size, child assessment, additional services offered, etc.) are most important for improving child outcomes (Mathematica-Caronongan 2016, CG-Health Equity).

Academic effects. Preschool improves cognitive abilities (e.g., general knowledge, language, and math skills) and educational success among participating children (CG-Health Equity, Camilli 2010, Manning 2010, Burger 2010). Available evidence shows greater improvements in academic and executive function skills among students who spend more time in high quality early childhood education (ECE) programs than those spending less time (Bustamante 2022, Shah 2017). Among children attending high quality elementary schools, the academic benefits of preschool can persist through fifth grade; however, academic effects fade more quickly among children attending low quality elementary schools (Ansari 2018a). ECE participation is associated with decreases in special education placements and grade retention and increases in high school completion among participants (McCoy 2017). Gains in cognitive skills and academic achievement are larger for students from families with low incomes than for students from families with high incomes (Duncan 2013, RAND-Karoly 2016). Participation in economically integrated preschool programs may improve academic achievement more for children from families with low incomes than programs that only serve children from disadvantaged backgrounds (Miller 2017a, NBER-Cascio 2017). Available evidence suggests participation in Head Start, a publicly funded preschool program for children from low income backgrounds, is associated with large benefits over the long-term, including increased high school completion, college enrollment and completion, economic self-sufficiency, and labor force participation (Bailey 2021).

Other beneficial outcomes. Preschool participation also improves social-emotional abilities; such gains can persist after cognitive effects fade (Camilli 2010). In some circumstances, preschool participation can modestly reduce social deviance in adolescence (Camilli 2010, Burger 2010) and can increase determination and positive attitudes around goal-setting among middle school students (Phillips 2018). Preschool program participation is also associated with improved physical and mental health and social competence for children (D'Onise 2010a), and improved adolescent health outcomes, especially in cardiovascular health (Sabol 2017). Programs support healthy behaviors as children age but have no impact on chronic disease outcomes (D'Onise 2010, Englund 2015).

Teacher training effects. Teachers with higher qualifications are associated with improved learning environments and higher quality ECE (Campbell-Manning 2017). In-service professional development programs can improve outcomes for child development and increase quality of ECE (Egert 2018). Overall, preschool enhancement programs, such as curricular enhancements, parent education, skills-based opportunities, and professional development, whether implemented alone or in combination, can improve behavioral, cognitive, health and socio-emotional outcomes for participating children (Joo 2020). Among early childhood education curriculum options, implementation varies and teacher training and ongoing support are needed to achieve intended child development benefits (Jenkins 2019).

Best practices. Comprehensive preschool programs that include direct teaching and child-initiated activities, also called free play, increase literacy and language development; programs that focus solely on child-initiated activities do not (BEE-Chambers 2016). Child-directed play is important, however, as it contributes to healthy cognitive, social, and physical development (Belknap 2014). Explicit academic instruction, low staff-to-student ratios (Camilli 2010), instructional support for students, and rich student/teacher interactions are components of effective preschool programs (Garcia-Carrion 2016).

Program quality. Part- and full-day programs and 1- and 2-year programs have demonstrated positive effects (RAND-Karoly 2016). Overall, higher quality programs have modestly stronger and more sustained effects than lower quality programs (Keys 2013, RAND-Karoly 2016). High quality preschool programs in racial or ethnic minority communities or communities with low incomes can reduce educational achievement gaps (Duncan 2013, CG-Health Equity) in some circumstances (Burger 2010).

Benefits and costs. The estimated economic return for full-scale, high quality preschool ranges from $2-$4 for every $1 invested (RAND-Karoly 2016). Models suggest that providing high quality, free preschool programs for children from families with low socio-economic status generates positive net gains to society (NBER-Heckman 2013). A benefit-cost analysis of the Perry Preschool Project shows multi-generational benefits for participants and their children, as well as large, positive net gains for society from high quality ECE programs (NBER-Garcia 2021).

There is strong evidence that high quality preschool education programs reduce disparities in educational attainment, especially between students from low income backgrounds and students from high income backgrounds (Bustamante 2022, CG-Health Equity, Duncan 2013, RAND-Karoly 2016, Manfra 2017). Gains in cognitive skills and academic achievement are larger for students from families with low incomes than for students from families with high incomes (Duncan 2013, RAND-Karoly 2016), and can persist through 3^rd grade for reading and math achievement (Manfra 2017). Over the long term, among children from low income backgrounds, more time spent in high quality early childhood education (ECE) programs is associated with greater increases in college completion rates and income levels, and can help close education and income gaps with their peers from higher income backgrounds (Bustamante 2022). Available evidence suggests participation in preschool programs such as Head Start and the Perry Preschool Project is associated with large long-term benefits for children from low income backgrounds, including increased high school completion, college enrollment and completion, economic self-sufficiency, labor force participation (Bailey 2021), increased earnings, and improved health outcomes (NBER-Garcia 2021a).

High quality preschool programs that focus on reducing disparities in education access and quality in racial or ethnic minority communities can reduce racial achievement gaps (CG-Health Equity, Burger 2010). Black, Hispanic, Asian, and Native children as well as children from families with low incomes are less likely to be enrolled in preschool or have access to high quality preschool than white children and children from families with higher incomes (Colaner 2020, Latham 2020, US ED-Preschool 2015). Available evidence suggests that lower preschool enrollment rates among Hispanic families is largely due to language barriers, limited access to ECE programs, and economic inequities (Mendez-Smith 2021, Ansari 2017). Experts suggest locating high quality preschool programs in Hispanic communities and using family-centered and culturally responsive outreach and retention strategies to better serve Hispanic families (Mendez-Smith 2021). ECE classrooms can implement supports for dual language learners whether or not teachers speak the second language (Partika 2021). An Illinois-based study shows that implementing bilingual preschool classrooms on a large scale can increase ECE enrollment among students with English language learner (ELL) status (Chan 2020).

Children living in rural areas have lower participation rates in preschool education programs compared to urban and suburban areas (Morrissey 2022a). Families living in rural areas often have less access to early childhood care and education programs and these programs often have fewer resources than in urban and suburban areas (Morrissey 2022a). Families living in rural areas report difficulty enrolling their children in center-based early childhood programs because fewer spots are available and transportation to program locations can be more challenging than in suburban or urban areas. In urban and suburban areas, parents are more likely to report cost as the primary barrier to enrollment than in rural areas (NCES-ECEC in rural areas).

Research has shown higher rates of exclusionary disciplinary action (i.e. suspensions and expulsions) taken against Black and Hispanic children than against white children, starting in preschool (Sabol 2022, Wymer 2022). Black male children are especially likely to be disciplined at school (Wymer 2022). Disparities in exclusionary disciplinary action are not supported by any observed differences in disruptive behavior measurements, which suggests that preschool programs need to raise awareness and provide teacher training and professional development to prevent discriminatory punishment practices due to implicit and explicit racial bias (Sabol 2022, Wymer 2022). One study suggests that both teacher and child race or ethnic identification relates to teacher response to children’s behavior and disciplinary recommendations (Wymer 2022).

In the U.S., there has never been an integrated national policy for early childhood education and care (ECEC) programs. Programs focused on child care and programs focused on early education developed separately. In the 1830s, nurseries provided children with basic care and supervision. Enrollment in such programs increased the most during times of war, and generally decreased after wars ended (from the Civil War through WWII). Early childhood programs became more available in the 1960s and 1970s, as maternal workforce participation increased and the number of households headed by single mothers grew (Kamerman 2007). In 1965, Head Start was established at the federal level as a community action program overseen by the Economic Opportunity Office to provide non-segregated preschool education programs to children from families with low incomes. Despite many obstacles and resistance from school boards and community organizations, many Civil Rights leaders and advocates persisted to establish and develop successful Head Start programs. Head Start programs also created employment opportunities and hired educators, administrators, and employees of color, even in the South (NHSA-Head Start history). When Head Start funding expanded in the 1980s and 1990s, preschool enrollment rates increased, though there still were not enough spaces to provide preschool for all eligible children. The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 required single mothers to work to receive public assistance and created an even greater need for ECEC programs for infants and children (Kamerman 2007). Historically roles for women in American society have been constrained, at least in part to discourage mothers from middle class backgrounds from participating in the work force, by offering unequal pay and limited job opportunities. However, policies have simultaneously forced single mothers from low income backgrounds to work outside of the home, regardless of their preferences, the age of their infants or children, or the quality of ECEC available to them (Kamerman 2007).

Overall, access to high quality ECEC programs varies substantially (NBER-Cascio 2021, Kamerman 2007). Preschool enrollment growth rates vary by geography and race or ethnicity. Even though publicly funded preschool is designed for children from families with low incomes, enrollment gaps remain based on family income and parent education levels (NBER-Cascio 2021). States still have responsibility for preschool program offerings and some states are trying to increase preschool access. For example, Georgia and Oklahoma were the first two states to adopt universal pre-K programs (NBER-Cascio 2021), and Georgia’s universal pre-K program benefits children from families with low incomes in rural areas the most, possibly because they cannot access alternative pre-K programs (Fitzpatrick 2008). State-funded pre-K has been expanded in many states from 1998 to the present (NBER-Cascio 2021). However, in many areas, the need for high quality preschool opportunities persists (NBER-Cascio 2021, Kamerman 2007).

• Which neighborhoods in your community have access to high quality preschool education programs? Are there publicly funded preschool options available for families with low incomes? Whether your community identifies as urban or rural or in-between, can you increase space availability for more children? Reduce costs for families? Improve location convenience? Increase transportation options?
• How could you support quality improvements for early childhood education and care programs in your community? Are there partnerships or collaborations that could support teachers, students, and parents involved in the program?
• What can you do to increase enrollment in preschool education programs among students identifying as a racial or ethnic minority? Among students with English language learner status? Among students from low income backgrounds?
• How can local preschool education programs support equitable outcomes for students of all backgrounds? What training can you offer to teachers and providers to reduce implicit and explicit bias and promote fair punishment practices?

During the 2021 legislative session, state legislatures in 43 states enacted 208 bills related to early childhood; many bills aimed to increase access to center-based programs and many others focused on improving preschool education programs and school readiness (NCSL-ECE report 2022). The National Conference of State Legislatures maintains a database to track legislation on early childhood education (ECE) in all 50 states and U.S. territories (NCSL-ECE tracking).

As of 2018, approximately 61% of 4-year-olds and 34% of 3-year-olds were enrolled in center-based preschool programs (NBER-Cascio 2021). As of 2020, 44 states and Washington, D.C. have publicly funded pre-kindergarten (pre-K) programs that serve over 1.37 million 4-year-olds, about one-third of all 4-year-olds in the country. Idaho, Indiana, Montana, New Hampshire, South Dakota, and Wyoming do not have publicly funded pre-K programs. Eight states served nearly 50% or more of 4-year-olds in their states, and five states enrolled more than 70% of their 4-year-olds. Alabama, Hawaii, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, and Rhode Island are the only states with programs that meet all 10 of the National Institute for Early Education Research’s (NIEER’s) quality benchmarks for state preschool. The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly reduced previous progress achieved in preschool education enrollment and funding (NIEER-Friedman-Krauss 2021). The Administration for Children and Families’ (ACF) Office of Childcare offers tips for choosing a preschool program and a database searchable by state for finding local preschool programs and resources (US DHHS OCC-Preschool, US DHHS OCC-CC state search)

The U.S. Department of Education (U.S. ED) administers several programs and grants to support early learning initiatives and to develop state capacity for preschool education programs (US ED-Early learning). The Preschool for All proposal aims to establish a cost sharing partnership between U.S. ED and all 50 states, to improve access to high quality preschool programs in all states (US ED-Preschool for all). As of 2022, federal investment in Head Start and Early Head Start has also increased, with some funds earmarked for quality improvement initiatives (Head Start-2022 funding).

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NACRHHS-Rural childcare 2023 - National Advisory Committee on Rural Health and Human Services (NACRHHS). (2023, January). Childcare need and availability in rural areas: Policy brief and recommendations to the secretary. Retrieved September 9, 2025.

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USDA-Rural ECEC - U.S. Deparment of Agriculture, Rural Development & U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families. (2024). Joint resource guide: To strengthen and expand child care facilities in rural communities.

* Journal subscription may be required for access.

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US DHHS OCC-Preschool - U.S. Department of Health & Human Services (U.S. DHHS), Administration for Children & Families, Office of Child Care (OCC), Childcare.gov. Preschool programs.

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