Youth leadership programs

There is some evidence that youth leadership programs increase self-efficacy among middle and high school students (Osofsky 2018, Batista 2018, Murphy 2020, Anyon 2018, Zimmerman 2018, Harris 2018a). However, additional evidence is needed to confirm effects (Curran 2017).

Youth leadership programs may increase self-efficacy in youth aging out of foster care (Batista 2018) and prevent a decrease in self-efficacy among minority middle school students from families with low incomes (Murphy 2020). Students who experience traumatic events report increased self-efficacy and reduced trauma symptoms after participating in a leadership program, compared to non-participants (Osofsky 2018). An after-school leadership program for middle school students shows increases in self-esteem and leadership activities, which in turn reduces reports of delinquent behavior a year after program participation (Zimmerman 2018); Black students experience a greater decrease in delinquent behavior than white peers (Thulin 2022).

Available evidence suggests that youth leadership programs may increase interpersonal and social skills (Zimmerman 2018, Ozer 2013, Puxley 2021), improve problem solving and critical thinking (Zimmerman 2018, Harris 2018a, YG-Leadership), and may increase both youth’s interest and ability to engage in community change (i.e., civic participation) (Zimmerman 2018, Ballard 2021) among middle and high school students. A study of a leadership program for youth from military families shows participants gain leadership skills, resiliency, and an awareness of the needs of their community (Weston 2021). Evaluations of youth participatory action research, which are youth-led research projects for positive change in their environment, suggest that such approaches may increase youth empowerment and social skills (Anyon 2018), and have the potential for youth-led improvements to school and community issues (Rocha 2022).

Experts recommend that leadership development programs clearly define youth roles and goals; establish trust-based, positive relationships between youth and adults; provide activities to build skills; and create an equitable program climate that values fairness and respect (YG-Leadership, Bates 2019, Ballard 2021). Organizations working with youth should engage youth in meetings, encourage the exchange of constructive feedback between youth and adults, and recognize and act on efforts to suppress youth voices (Wu 2022). Experts recommend that adults in youth-led programs act as allies, providing instrumental support and guidance while creating structure and space for youth to engage in the program and build their leadership capacity (Collura 2019).

Youth camp programs for children with chronic illnesses may also offer opportunities for leadership building and sustained youth-adult relationships (Sendak 2018).

Experts suggest youth leadership programs have the potential to decrease disparities in youth leadership and healthy development across diverse youth populations (Barcelos 2021, Lewis 2019a, Ruhr 2022). Available evidence is limited and often based upon very small studies. A study of an experiential outdoor youth leadership program for Cherokee youth, Remember the Removal, may improve the physical, emotional, social, and cultural health of indigenous youth by increasing awareness of cultural traditions and language (Lewis 2019a). A youth leadership development and political education program for transgender youth, the Trans Youth Justice Project, may increase feelings of connection and belonging within the trans community, and increase participants’ capacity for social justice work by teaching skills for organizing (Barcelos 2021). Including culturally relevant practices in youth leadership programs can support Asian American youth in efforts to develop leadership skills (Song 2022).

Experts suggest that offering youth programs outside of school hours can provide minority youth living in underprivileged areas time and space to practice leadership roles and develop life skills (Ruhr 2022).

In the past, youth were considered too immature to participate in decision-making, which often left them powerless to influence the issues that directly impacted them. Leadership programs, failing to recognize youths as active participants, focused on character development and life preparation within the mainstream (i.e., social structures and organizations). Yet, as more young people demonstrated their ability to lead social movements, perspectives began to change, and youth are now recognized as active players and potential advocates outside of the conventional systems of power. Youth leadership programs have evolved, focusing less on individuals and instead moving to encourage all young people’s ability to lead, and ideally recognizing that both the youths and the adults involved have valuable insights. However, the same systemic issues that grant power to particular groups also often influence youths’ experiences in programs, leading to inequities in youth-adult partnerships and power sharing (Sherif 2018, Libby 2006).

Youth from families with low incomes often lack opportunities to participate in school or community activities and to assume leadership roles (Zaff 2009). Race, gender, and family income all influence who participates in youth leadership programs while community resources determine to what extent consistent support and opportunities are available (Kress 2006). Inequities in access to leadership programs often result in overrepresentation of high-achieving youth from middle class families in programs for young leaders, even in programs meant for youth experiencing disadvantages (Kress 2006). Successful youth organizations are often elite driven, attracting participants who are high achieving and well-educated (Kress 2006). To prevent this overrepresentation, youth leadership programs need to take a focused approach to recruiting youth participants (Bates 2019). Program staff may fail to recognize the structural inequities that youth of color experience in their daily lives, preventing programs from creating a safe, trustworthy environment and from being attractive and relevant to youth of color (Child Trends-Redd 2020).

• How can schools and youth-oriented community organizations include youth in discussions and the design, implementation, and evaluation of programs meant for them?
• What implicit and explicit biases do youth leadership program staff and other adults (e.g., parents, guardians, teachers, coaches, etc.) have that might hinder youth’s full engagement in leadership programs and prevent positive change?
• Do youth of color and youth from families with low incomes have equitable opportunities to participate in leadership programs? Are programs available in their schools, neighborhoods, or other locations they can easily access? Are there systematic and/or structural barriers to program access and participation? How can programs eliminate these barriers?

Youth leadership programs are available throughout the U.S. and vary in their focus. Youth across the country participate in 4-H civic engagement programs and HOBY leadership seminars (4-H Civic engagement, HOBY). Youth Health Service Corps and Youth Empowerment Solutions are examples of programs that work to empower middle and high school students to help create healthy communities (YHSC, UM-YES). In California, the Ambassador Program for upper-grade elementary and middle school students provides leadership training to diverse students and involves them in community service, while Youth Leadership America, based in Anaheim, empowers students to become leaders and improve their communities through community impact projects (Ambassador Program, YLA). The Youth Leadership Academy at Ohio State University is a four year program for high school students to prepare for college and future careers (YLA OH). Many cities have youth commissions or youth councils, such as the San Pablo Youth Commission and the New York City Youth Leadership Council, which is led by undocumented youth (SPYC, NYC-YLC).

MGR Foundation's Youth Empowerment program and C5 Association’s Youth Program are examples of efforts to build leadership and empowerment, specifically among under-resourced youth (MGR-Youth empowerment, C5 Youth). Remember the Removal Bike Ride, a land-based outdoor youth leadership program for Cherokee youth, journeys along the 1,000 mile Trail of Tears, following the path of the forced removal of the Cherokee Nation in 1838 from the southeastern U.S. to modern-day Oklahoma. The program supports indigenous youth leaders through trainings based in Cherokee culture, history, and teamwork (Remember the Removal).

NYLC - National Youth Leadership Council (NYLC). Serve. Learn. Change the world.

UM-YES-Resources - University of Michigan (UM), School of Public Health. Youth Empowered Solutions (YES). Resources.

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4-H Civic engagement - National 4-H Council. 4-H Civic engagement programs.

Ambassador Program - The Ambassador Program. Student leaders serving our community. Embassy Consulting Service, Los Alamitos, California.

Anyon 2018* - Anyon Y, Bender K, Kennedy H, Dechants J. A systematic review of youth participatory action research (YPAR) in the United States: Methodologies, youth outcomes, and future directions. Health Education and Behavior. 2018;45(6):865-878.

Ballard 2021* - Ballard J, Borden L, Perkins DF. Program quality components related to youth civic engagement. Children and Youth Services Review. 2021;126:106022.

Barcelos 2021* - Barcelos C, McNeill JN, Turner Y, Redwine EM. The trans youth justice project: A political education and leadership development program. Journal of LGBT Youth. 2021.

Bates 2019 - Bates S, Anderson-Butcher D, Niewoehner-Green J, Provenzano J. Exploration of a college and career readiness leadership program for urban youth. Journal of Youth Development. 2019;14(3):160-182.

Batista 2018 - Batista T, Johnson A, Friedmann LB. The effects of youth empowerment programs on the psychological empowerment of young people aging out of foster care. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research. 2018;9(4):531-549.

C5 Youth - C5 Association. Inspire high-potential youth. 2018.

Campbell-Morton 2011 - Morton M, Montgomery P. Youth empowerment programs for improving self-efficacy and self-esteem of adolescents. Campbell Systematic Reviews. 2011:5.

Child Trends-Redd 2020 - Redd Z, Moore K, Andrews K. Embedding a racial equity perspective in the positive youth development approach. Bethesda, MD: Child Trends; 2020.

Collura 2019 - Collura JJ, Raffle H, Collins AL, Kennedy H. Creating spaces for young people to collaborate to create community change: Ohio’s youth-led initiative. Health Education & Behavior. 2019;46(Suppl 1):44S-52S.

Curran 2017 - Curran T, Wexler L. School-based positive youth development: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of School Health. 2017;87(1):71-80.

Harris 2018a - Harris A, Beckert TE. Effect of HOBY leadership seminar on self-reported psychosocial outcomes in adolescents. Journal of Youth Development. 2018;13(4):118-133.

HOBY - Hugh O’Brian Youth Leadership (HOBY). To inspire and develop our global community of youth and volunteers to a life dedicated to leadership, service, and innovation.

Kress 2006* - Kress CA. Youth leadership and youth development: Connections and questions. New Directions for Youth Development. 2006;109:45-56.

Lewis 2019a - Lewis ME, Myhra LL, Vieaux LE, et al. Evaluation of a native youth leadership program grounded in Cherokee culture: The Remember the Removal program. American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research. 2019;26(1):1-32.

Libby 2006* - Libby M, Sedonaen M, Bliss S. The mystery of youth leadership development: The path to just communities. New Directions for Youth Development. 2006;109:13-25.

MGR-Youth empowerment - Marilyn G. Rabb Foundation. MGR youth empowerment: Empowering youth, changing communities.

Murphy 2020* - Murphy NA, Yuan M, Elias MJ. Youth leadership programming in high-poverty minority students. Evaluation and Program Planning. 2020;79:101728.

NYC-YLC - New York City (NYC). The New York State Youth Leadership Council (YLC).

Osofsky 2018* - Osofsky H, Osofsky J, Hansel T, Lawrason B, Speier A. Building resilience after disasters through the Youth Leadership Program: The importance of community and academic partnerships on youth outcomes. Progress in Community Health Partnerships: Research, Education, and Action. 2018;12(1):11-21.

Ozer 2013* - Ozer EJ, Douglas L. The impact of participatory research on urban teens: An experimental evaluation. American Journal of Community Psychology. 2013;51(1-2):66-75.

Puxley 2021* - Puxley ST, Chapin LA. Building youth leadership skills and community awareness: Engagement of rural youth with a community-based leadership program. Journal of Community Psychology. 2021;49(5):1063-1078.

Remember the Removal - Cherokee Nation. Remember the Removal.

Rocha 2022* - Rocha C, Mendoza I, Lovell JL, et al. Using youth-led participatory action research to advance the mental health needs of Latinx youth during COVID-19. School Psychology Review. 2022.

Ruhr 2022* - Ruhr LR, Fowler LJ. Empowerment-focused positive youth development programming for underprivileged youth in the Southern U.S.: A qualitative evaluation. Children and Youth Services Review. 2022;143:106684.

Sendak 2018 - Sendak MD, Schilstra C, Tye E, Brotkin S, Maslow G. Positive youth development at camps for youth with chronic illness: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Youth Development. 2018;13(1-2):201-215.

Sherif 2018 - Sherif V. Voices that matter: Rural youth on leadership. Research in Educational Administration & Leadership. 2018;3(2):311-337.

Song 2022* - Song A, Hur JW. Development of youth leadership through community-based participatory action research during the COVID-19 pandemic: A case study of Korean American adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research. 2022.

SPYC - City of San Pablo. San Pablo Youth Commission (SPYC).

Thulin 2022* - Thulin EJ, Lee DB, Eisman AB, et al. Longitudinal effects of Youth Empowerment Solutions: Preventing youth aggression and increasing prosocial behavior. American Journal of Community Psychology. 2022;70(1-2):75-88.

UM-YES - University of Michigan (UM), School of Public Health. Youth Empowered Solutions (YES).

UW Ext-4-H - University of Wisconsin-Extension (UW Ext). Wisconsin 4-H Citizenship.

Weston 2021 - Weston KL, Garst BA, Bowers EP, Quinn WH. Cultivating knowledge of resiliency and reintegration among military youth through a national youth leadership program. Evaluation and Program Planning. 2021;86:101915.

WI DCF-Youth leadership - Wisconsin Department of Children and Families (WI DCF). Youth leadership opportunities in Wisconsin.

WI DPI-Youth leadership - Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction (WI DPI). Youth Leadership Co-Op.

WI YLF - Wisconsin Board for People with Developmental Disabilities (WI BPDD). Wisconsin Youth Leadership Forum (WI YLF) at Edgewood College, Madison, WI.

Wu 2022 - Wu JHC, Shereda A, Stacy ST, Weiss JK, Heintschel M. Maximizing youth leadership in out-of-school time programs: Six best practices from youth driven spaces. Journal of Youth Development. 2022;17(3):70-89.

YG-Leadership - Youth.gov (YG). Youth transitioning to adulthood: How holding early leadership positions can make a difference. Youth briefs.

YHSC - Health360. Student training: Youth Health Service Corps (YHSC).

YLA - Youth Leadership America (YLA). Empower the next generation of community leaders.

YLA OH - Ohio State University LiFEsports. Youth Leadership Academy (YLA).

Zaff 2009 - Zaff JF, Youniss J, Gibson CM. An inequitable invitation to citizenship: Non-college-bound youth and civic engagement. Philanthropy for Active Civic Engagement (PACE); 2009.

Zimmerman 2018 - Zimmerman MA, Eisman AB, Reischl, et al. Youth Empowerment Solutions: Evaluation of an after-school program to engage middle school students in community change. Health Education and Behavior. 2018;45(1):20-31.