Early childhood home visiting programs

There is strong evidence that early childhood home visiting programs prevent child maltreatment (OPRE-Sama-Miller 2017, Casillas 2016, Selph 2013, Peacock 2013, CG-Violence, Goodman 2021, OPRE-Michalopoulos 2019, Dodge 2019) and injury (Cochrane-Kendrick 2013, Goodman 2021, OPRE-Michalopoulos 2019), and improve children’s cognitive and socio-emotional development (OPRE-Sama-Miller 2017, MDRC-Michalopoulos 2017, Peacock 2013, Goyal 2013, Edwards 2020, OPRE-Michalopoulos 2019, Kitzman 2019). Early childhood home visiting programs have also been shown to improve birth outcomes (Liu 2019, OPRE-Sama-Miller 2017, Peacock 2013, Issel 2011, McCue 2022, Anthony 2021), maternal health (OPRE-Sama-Miller 2017), parenting behaviors and attitudes (OPRE-Sama-Miller 2017, Goyal 2013, Kendrick 2000, Sweet 2004), and increase family economic self-sufficiency (OPRE-Sama-Miller 2017, MDRC-Michalopoulos 2017). Effects are often sustained until children reach age seven (MDRC-Michalopoulos 2017).

Home visiting programs have been shown to reduce maternal postpartum depression in the U.S. (OPRE-Sama-Miller 2017, Dodge 2019) and internationally (Cochrane-Dennis 2013). Home visiting begun prenatally may increase use of prenatal care (OPRE-Sama-Miller 2017, Issel 2011), improve infant health, increase vaccination (OPRE-Sama-Miller 2017, El Fadl 2016, Peacock 2013, CG-Violence, Wightman 2022, Green 2018), and reduce infant visits to the emergency room (RAND-Kilburn 2017, Goodman 2021, OPRE-Michalopoulos 2019). Home visiting programs led by doulas may lead to improved infant care by parents (Edwards 2020, Hans 2018). Some home visiting programs for preterm babies appear to improve physical growth and reduce hospitalization (Goyal 2013). Visits begun postnatally may improve infant health and increase exclusive breastfeeding, particularly with frequent visits; however, they may not reduce child mortality or improve maternal health (Cochrane-Yonemoto 2021).

Programs for teenage mothers may reduce rapid repeat pregnancies (Liu 2019, Cochrane-Lopez 2015, Maravilla 2016) and increase use of contraception (Cochrane-Lopez 2015). In some circumstances, home visiting programs appear to reduce intimate partner violence (OPRE-Niland 2022, Prosman 2015, Sharps 2016) and help reduce mothers’ potential involvement with the criminal justice system (Kitzman 2019). Some home visiting programs have been shown to be effective in improving math and language skills in children (Kitzman 2019, OPRE-Mraz Esposito 2017), especially when they are tailored to support language development (Henwood 2020, Raikes 2023). Home visiting programs may not be successful, and may even be harmful, when participants abuse drugs or alcohol (Cochrane-Turnbull 2012). Findings from a short-term home visiting program in Massachusetts suggest interventions may increase the likelihood that families who could benefit from longer-term home-visiting or early intervention services are enrolled in such services (Kotake 2023). Another Massachusetts-based home visiting program suggests it may decrease the chances enrolled mothers will experience homelessness when their children are preschool-aged (Stargel 2018).

Longer term and more intense interventions, supervision of home visitors, and fidelity monitoring appear to increase positive effects on child maltreatment (Casillas 2016, Selph 2013, CG-Violence) and cognitive outcomes (Sweet 2004). Programs delivered by licensed professionals, even when implemented by community agencies, appear to have stronger effects on children’s cognitive outcomes than programs delivered by paraprofessionals or non-professionals (Dodge 2019). Additionally, programs that intentionally include fathers may be more effective at improving family relationships and increasing program retention (Burcher 2021). However, research regarding home visiting and child maltreatment does not consistently indicate that one type of provider delivers the most effective interventions, only that child maltreatment rates go down as home visiting is implemented more broadly (Kim 2024). Additional evidence is needed to confirm the most effective method of implementation for any particular outcome of interest (Casillas 2016, Selph 2013, Sweet 2004, CG-Violence), including improving quality of life and reducing hospitalizations for children with asthma (Cochrane-O'Connor 2025).

Home visiting interventions are cost-effective in the long term, benefiting disadvantaged families and increasing economic sufficiency and stability (MDRC-Michalopoulos 2017). Programs that target specific populations have been shown to be cost effective, including when they target families of low-birthweight babies (Lewis 2023) and families with children diagnosed with asthma (Mahin 2024).

Innovations by tribal communities participating in the Tribal Maternal, Infant, and Early Childhood Home Visiting Program (MIECHV) improved program efficacy, including unique community engagement and recruitment and retention strategies, expanding the case management roles of home visitors, specifically employing paraprofessional home visitors, and practical advances to streamline evaluation approaches (Barlow 2018).

There is some evidence early childhood home visiting programs have the potential to decrease disparities in maternal and child health outcomes for families with racially-minoritized backgrounds and those with low incomes. These effects may be stronger when programs are tailored for specific populations with worse health and birth outcomes. However, available evidence suggests the complex and pervasive impacts of structural racism can limit the potential of home visiting programs to address disparities (Kotake 2023, McConnell 2022, Goodman 2021).

Home visiting programs led by community health workers (CHWs) have been shown to reduce disparities in maternal and child health outcomes, including prenatal care utilization, preterm birth, and low birthweight, when tailored for minoritized women and families, including Native women, women having their first baby, teens, women with less than a high school education, women in rural border counties (McCue 2022), and Black families (Anthony 2021). Such programs can also decrease disparities in vaccination rates among these groups who have historically had lower vaccination rates (Wightman 2022). CHW-led home visiting programs tailored to patients with asthma, who are disproportionately Black or Hispanic and with low incomes, may reduce disparities in asthma outcomes and may reduce Medicaid costs (Mahin 2024). An evaluation of the Family Spirit program for and by Native populations appears to improve child development, school readiness, maternal health, and parenting practices among participants (OPRE-Mraz Esposito 2017).

The maternal and infant mortality rates, low birthweight outcomes, and teen pregnancy rate in the U.S. are higher than in any other developed country (Tucker 2021, Hans 2018, CDC-About teen pregnancy). There are stark disparities in maternal outcomes and maternal mortality between women who are Black or American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) and those living in rural areas compared to women who are white or live in urban areas (ASPE-Knocke 2022, Tucker 2021, CWF-Hostetter 2019). Racial bias and discrimination in maternity care negatively impact outcomes for Black women (Tucker 2021) and many pregnant people in rural areas, particularly in the Midwest or the South, live in counties with no obstetricians or maternity care centers, severely restricting their access to care (March of Dimes-Brigance 2022). Preterm birth is approximately 50% higher among Black births than white births, low birthweight is almost double for Black infants, and infant mortality is more than twice as high (Mehra 2017). Teen pregnancies are associated with higher rates of neonatal and infant mortality, with the highest rates among infants born to Black teens (CDC-Woodall 2020). Teen pregnancies also have a higher risk of complications including preterm birth and low birthweight (CDC-Woodall 2020).

Structural racism, systemic inequalities in access to education, employment, and housing, and marginalizing experiences of poverty and discrimination all challenge the ability of home visiting programs to address health disparities (Mahin 2024, Jester 2022). Home visiting programs may have stronger effects for families from non-minoritized backgrounds (Goodman 2021). This may be because home visiting programs can have difficulty reaching and enrolling families whose primary language is not English (Kotake 2023), or that families experiencing more structural inequalities may be more likely to drop out of programs due to those barriers (Jester 2022). Experts suggest program frameworks need to center health equity to be able to respond to patients’ needs, interests, and concerns and minimize the structural factors that contribute to inequalities and persistent disparities (McConnell 2022).

Access to and receipt of sexual and reproductive health education and services, such as that provided by home visiting programs, as well as high quality medical care in the preconception and prenatal periods, are essential components to prevent adverse birth outcomes (Anthony 2021), particularly for pregnant women who are younger, from racially minoritized groups, or from families with lower incomes, who are at higher risk (Liu 2019). Nurse-led home visiting programs in the U.S. began in the late 1800s as a way to develop parents’ skills, they focused on prevention and early intervention to address growing health disparities in child mortality (Beatson 2021), while community health worker (CHW) programs, which became more popular in the 1960s and 1970s as part of social justice movements (NACHW-Mason 2021), were designed to expand access to care, including maternal and child health services, for communities geographically distant from or unfairly excluded from mainstream health care because of race, ethnicity, or poverty (Perry 2014b). Several of today’s major evidence-based home visiting programs began in the same era, including the Nurse-Family Partnership, to improve maternal and child health outcomes among families with low incomes (McConnell 2022).

The Maternal, Infant and Early Childhood Home Visiting (MIECHV) program was authorized by Congress in 2010 and allocates over $400 million a year to intensive home visiting programs (McConnell 2022). In 2019, there were 9 million pregnant women and families with children under six years old and not yet in kindergarten from racially minoritized groups and geographies, with low incomes or facing other structural inequalities; only 3% were served through evidence-based home visiting programs (CHCS-Lewy 2021).

• What community partnerships could help home visiting programs in your community offer comprehensive family support services? What program components are important to your local families with low incomes? To families identifying as a racial or ethnic minority? How can your community support home visiting programs so they can provide these services?
• How could your community increase access to high quality evidence-based home visiting programs for children from families with low incomes? For children identifying as a racial or ethnic minority?
• Which populations in your community have lower rates of home visiting program adherence? What supports and outreach activities might help reduce those disparities?
• What disparities in health care access and maternal and birth outcomes exist in your community? How do systemic factors such as residential segregation and poverty contribute to these disparities?
• What knowledge, skills, and abilities do families and children with low incomes in your community already have? How can your local home visiting programs be structured to highlight and build on those strengths?

The federal Maternal, Infant, and Early Childhood Home Visiting (MIECHV) program, administered by the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) provides states, territories and tribal communities with funding to implement early childhood home visiting models that have been approved through the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ (DHHS) Home Visiting Evidence of Effectiveness (HomVEE) review (HRSA-Home visiting). In fiscal year 2024, almost $4.5 million was awarded to all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and five U.S. territories from the MIECHV program (HRSA-Home visiting). In fiscal year 2023, 92% of participating families had household incomes at or below 200% of the Federal Poverty guideline, 58% of adult participants had a high school education or less, and 60% of the 1,033 counties served were rural (HRSA-MIECHV 2024). The program saw improvements in early language and literacy activities, postpartum care, developmental screenings, and well-child visits (HRSA-MIECHV 2024).

As of January 2025, there are 24 home visiting models that meet DHHS criteria for evidence-based program models (HRSA-Home visiting), for example, Healthy Families America (HFA), Nurse-Family Partnership (NFP), Parents as Teachers (PAT-Home visiting), and Early Head Start-Home Visiting (EHS-Home based).

Additionally, HRSA administers Healthy Start through its Maternal and Child Health Bureau. Compared to MIECHV, which focuses on early childhood development and allows states to choose a model to fit their community needs, Healthy Start is its own model that focuses on reducing infant deaths and enhancing mothers’ health (HRSA-Healthy Start). As of 2024, it funds 115 projects providing services in 37 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico that are tailored to the needs of their communities to help reduce differences in rates of infant death and maternal health outcomes (HRSA-Healthy Start).

‡ Resources with a focus on equity.

DC HealthCheck - District of Columbia's HealthCheck Training & Resource Center. Home visiting toolkit.

HRSA-Home visiting - Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA). Home visiting.

US DHHS ACF-Tribal HV^‡ - U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (U.S. DHHS), Administration for Children and Families (ACF). Tribal Maternal, Infant, and Early Childhood Home Visiting (MIECHV).

US DHHS-HomVEE - U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (U.S. DHHS). Home Visiting Evidence of Effectiveness (HomVEE).

* Journal subscription may be required for access.

Anthony 2021* - Anthony, E. R., Cho, Y., Fischer, R. L., & Matthews, L. (2021). Examining the causal impact of prenatal home visiting on birth outcomes: A propensity score analysis. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 25(6), 947–955.

ASPE-Knocke 2022 - Knocke K, Chappel A, Sugar S, De Lew N, Sommers BD. Doula care and maternal health: An evidence review. Issue Brief no. HP-2022-24. Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation (ASPE), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2022.

Barlow 2018 - Barlow, A., McDaniel, J. A., Marfani, F., Lowe, A., Keplinger, C., Beltangady, M., & Goklish, N. (2018). Discovering frugal innovations through delivering early childhood home-visiting interventions in low-resource tribal communities. Infant Mental Health Journal, 39(3), 276–286.

Beatson 2021* - Beatson, R., Molloy, C., Perini, N., Harrop, C., & Goldfeld, S. (2021). Systematic review: An exploration of core componentry characterizing effective sustained nurse home visiting programs. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 77(6), 2581–2594.

Burcher 2021* - Burcher, S. A., Corey, L. A., Mentzer, K. M., Davis, L., McNamee, H., Horning, M. L., Brown, S. J., & Shlafer, R. J. (2021). Family home visiting and fathers: A scoping review. Children and Youth Services Review, 128, 106132.

Casillas 2016* - Casillas KL, Fauchier A, Derkash BT, Garrido EF. Implementation of evidence-based home visiting programs aimed at reducing child maltreatment: A meta-analytic review. Child Abuse and Neglect. 2016;53:64-80.

CDC-About teen pregnancy - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). About teen pregnancy.

CDC-Woodall 2020 - Woodall AM, Driscoll AK. Racial and ethnic differences in mortality rate of infants born to teen mothers: United States, 2017-2018. Data Brief no. 3761. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Health Statistics. 2020.

CG-Violence - The Guide to Community Preventive Services (The Community Guide). Violence.

CHCS-Lewy 2021 - Lewy, D., & Casau, A. (2021, October). Addressing racial and ethnic disparities in maternal and child health through home visiting programs. Center for Health Care Strategies.

Cochrane-Dennis 2013* - Dennis CL, Dowswell T. Psychosocial and psychological interventions for preventing postpartum depression. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2013;(2):CD001134.

Cochrane-Kendrick 2013* - Kendrick D, Mulvaney CA, Ye L, et al. Parenting interventions for the prevention of unintentional injuries in childhood. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2013;(3):CD006020.

Cochrane-Lopez 2015* - Lopez LM, Grey TW, Hiller JE, Chen M. Education for contraceptive use by women after childbirth. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2015;(7):CD001863.

Cochrane-O'Connor 2025* - O’Connor, A., Hasan, M., Sriram, K. B., & Carson-Chahhoud, K. V. (2025). Home-based educational interventions for children with asthma. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2025(2).

Cochrane-Turnbull 2012* - Turnbull C, Osborn DA. Home visits during pregnancy and after birth for women with an alcohol or drug problem. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2012;(1):CD004456.

Cochrane-Yonemoto 2021 - Yonemoto, N., Nagai, S., & Mori, R. (2021). Schedules for home visits in the early postpartum period. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2021(7).

CWF-Hostetter 2019 - Hostetter M, Klein S. Improving health for women by better supporting them through pregnancy and beyond. New York: The Commonwealth Fund (CWF); 2019.

Dodge 2019 - Dodge, K. A., Goodman, W. B., Bai, Y., O’Donnell, K., & Murphy, R. A. (2019). Effect of a community agency-administered nurse home visitation program on program use and maternal and infant health outcomes: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of the American Medical Association Network Open, 2(11), e1914522.

Edwards 2020* - Edwards, R. C., Vieyra, Y., & Hans, S. L. (2020). Maternal support for infant learning: Findings from a randomized controlled trial of doula home visiting services for young mothers. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 51, 26–38.

EHS-Home based - Early Head Start National Resource Center (EHS). Home-based option.

El Fadl 2016 - El Fadl RA, Blair M, Hassounah S. Integrating maternal and children’s oral health promotion into nursing and midwifery practice - A systematic review. PLOS ONE. 2016;11(11):e0166760.

Goodman 2021 - Goodman JM, Williams C, Dow WH. Racial/ethnic inequities in paid parental leave access. Health Equity. 2021;5(1):738-749.

Goyal 2013* - Goyal NK, Teeters A, Ammerman RT. Home visiting and outcomes of preterm infants: A systematic review. Pediatrics. 2013;132(3):502-516.

Green 2018* - Green, B., Sanders, M. B., & Tarte, J. M. (2020). Effects of home visiting program implementation on preventive health care access and utilization: Results from a randomized trial of Healthy Families Oregon. Prevention Science, 21(1), 15–24.

Hans 2018 - Hans, S. L., Edwards, R. C., & Zhang, Y. (2018). Randomized Controlled Trial of Doula-Home-Visiting Services: Impact on Maternal and Infant Health. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 22(S1), 105–113.

Henwood 2020* - Henwood, T., Channon, S., Penny, H., Robling, M., & Waters, C. S. (2020). Do home visiting programmes improve children’s language development? A systematic review. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 109, 103610.

HFA - Healthy Families America (HFA). Great childhoods begin at home.

HRSA-Healthy Start - U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration Bureau of Maternal & Child Health. (2025). Healthy Starts. Retrieved March 4, 2025.

HRSA-Home visiting - Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA). Home visiting.

HRSA-HV state - Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA). Home visiting program: State fact sheets.

HRSA-MIECHV 2017 - Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA). The Maternal, Infant, and Early Childhood Home Visiting (MIECHV) Program: Partnering with parents to help children succeed. MIECHV program national program brief 2017.

HRSA-MIECHV 2024 - Health Resources and Services Administration. (2024). Maternal, infant, and early childhood home visiting program: 2024 Program brief. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved March 4, 2025.

Issel 2011 - Issel LM, Forrestal SG, Slaughter J, Wiencrot A, Arden H. A review of prenatal home-visiting effectiveness for improving birth outcomes. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing. 2011;40(2):157-65.

Jester 2022* - Jester, J. M., Rosenblum, K. L., Muzik, M., Niec, L. N., Stringer, M. K., Handelzalts, J. E., Brophy-Herb, H. E., Stacks, A. M., Weatherston, D. J., Torres, C., Julian, M. M., Lawler, J. M., Barron, C., Brophy-Herb, H. E., Erickson, N. L., Fitzgerald, H. E., Huth-Bocks, A. C., Jester, J. M., Julian, M. M., … Weatherston, D. J. (2023). Demographic and psychological factors that predict retention in infant mental health home visiting. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 62, 64–75.

Kendrick 2000* - Kendrick D, Elkan R, Hewitt M, et al. Does home visiting improve parenting and the quality of the home environment? A systematic review and meta analysis. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 2000;82(6):443-51.

Kim 2024* - Kim, H., Song, E.-J., & Windsor, L. (2024). Evidence-Based Home Visiting Provisions and Child Maltreatment Report Rates: County-Level Analysis of US National Data From 2016 to 2018. Child Maltreatment, 29(1), 176–189.

Kitzman 2019* - Kitzman, H., Olds, D. L., Knudtson, M. D., Cole, R., Anson, E., Smith, J. A., Fishbein, D., DiClemente, R., Wingood, G., Caliendo, A. M., Hopfer, C., Miller, T., & Conti, G. (2019). Prenatal and infancy nurse home visiting and 18-year outcomes of a randomized trial. Pediatrics, 144(6), e20183876.

Kotake 2023* - Kotake, C., Fauth, R. C., Stetler, K., Goldberg, J. L., Silva, C. F., & Manning, S. E. (2023). Improving connections to early childhood systems of care via a universal home visiting program in Massachusetts. Children and Youth Services Review, 150, 106995.

Lewis 2023* - Lewis, P. R., Pelzl, C., Benzer, E., Szad, S., Judge, C., Wang, A., & Van Gent, M. (2023). Bringing opiates off the streets and undertaking excess scripts: A novel opiate reclamation and prescription reduction program. Surgery, 174(3), 574–580.

Liu 2019* - Liu, N., Li, P., Wang, J., Chen, D., Sun, W., & Zhang, W. (2019). Effects of home visits for pregnant and postpartum women on premature birth, low birth weight and rapid repeat birth: A meta-analysis and systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Family Practice, 36(5), 533–543.

Mahin 2024* - Mahin, M., Guo, J., Warner, M., Dottin, M., Olsen, N., & Marshall, E. T. (2024). Projected cost savings of a community health worker model for asthma home visits in the Massachusetts pediatric Medicaid population. Preventing Chronic Disease, 21, 240028.

Maravilla 2016* - Maravilla JC, Betts KS, Abajobir AA, Couto e Cruz C, Alati R. The role of community health workers in preventing adolescent repeat pregnancies and births. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2016;59(4):378-390.

March of Dimes-Brigance 2022 - Brigance C, Lucas R, Jones E, et al. Nowhere to go: Maternity care deserts across the U.S. (Report No. 3). March of Dimes; 2022.

McConnell 2022 - McConnell, M. A., Rokicki, S., Ayers, S., Allouch, F., Perreault, N., Gourevitch, R. A., Martin, M. W., Zhou, R. A., Zera, C., Hacker, M. R., Chien, A., Bates, M. A., & Baicker, K. (2022). Effect of an intensive nurse home visiting program on adverse birth outcomes in a Medicaid-eligible population: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 328(1), 27.

McCue 2022 - McCue, K., Sabo, S., Wightman, P., Butler, M., Pilling, V., Jiménez, D., Annorbah, R., & Rumann, S. (2022). Impact of a community health worker (CHW) home visiting intervention on any and adequate prenatal care among ethno-racially diverse pregnant women of the U.S. Southwest. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 26(12), 2485–2495.

MDRC-Michalopoulos 2017 - Michalopoulos C, Faucetta K, Warren A, Mitchell R. Evidence on the long-term effects of home visiting programs: Laying the groundwork for long-term follow-up in the Mother and Infant Home Visiting Program Evaluation (MIHOPE). New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation (MDRC); 2017.

Mehra 2017* - Mehra R, Boyd LM, Ickovics JR. Racial segregation and adverse birth outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Social Science & Medicine. 2017;191:237-250.

NACHW-Mason 2021 - Mason TH, Rush CH, Sugarman MK. Statewide training approaches for community health workers. Boston: National Association of Community Health Workers (NACHW); 2021.

NFP - Nurse-Family Partnership (NFP). Helping first-time parents succeed.

OPRE-Michalopoulos 2019 - Michalopoulos, C., Faucetta, K., Hill, C. J., Portilla, X. A., Burrell, L., Lee, H., Duggan, A., & Knox, V. (2019). Impacts on family outcomes of evidence-based early childhood home visiting: Results from the Mother and Infant Home Visiting Program Evaluation (OPRE Report 2019-07). Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

OPRE-Mraz Esposito 2017 - Mraz Esposito A, Coughlin R, Malick S, et al. Assessing the research on home visiting program models implemented in tribal communities - Part 1: Evidence of effectiveness. Washington, D.C.: Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation (OPRE), Administration for Children and Families (ACF), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (U.S. DHHS); 2017.

OPRE-Niland 2022 - Niland, K., Zukiewicz, M., & Sama-Miller, E. (2020). What the evidence says: Intimate partner violence and home visiting (OPRE Report #2020-19). Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Washington, DC.

OPRE-Sama-Miller 2017 - Sama-Miller E, Akers L, Mraz-Esposito A, et al. Home visiting evidence of effectiveness review: Executive summary. Washington, D.C.: Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation (OPRE), Administration for Children and Families (ACF), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (U.S. DHHS); 2017.

PAT-Home visiting - Parents as Teachers (PAT). Evidence-based home visiting.

Peacock 2013 - Peacock, S., Konrad, S., Watson, E., Nickel, D., & Muhajarine, N. (2013). Effectiveness of home visiting programs on child outcomes: A systematic review. BMC Public Health, 13, 17.

Perry 2014b - Perry HB, Zulliger R, Rogers MM. Community health workers in low-, middle-, and high-income countries: An overview of their history, recent evolution, and current effectiveness. Annual Review of Public Health. 2014;35:399-421.

Prosman 2015* - Prosman GJ, Lo Fo Wong SH, van der Wouden JC, Lagro-Janssen ALM. Effectiveness of home visiting in reducing partner violence for families experiencing abuse: A systematic review. Family Practice. 2015;32(3):247-256.

Raikes 2023* - Raikes, H., Chazan-Cohen, R., Harden, B. J., Byrd, J., Svoboda, E., Welch, G., Esteraich, J., Deming, J., Duncan, A. D., & Escalante, E. (2023). Evidence of the effectiveness of a home visiting model in rural communities: Early Steps to School success. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 63, 299–312.

RAND-Kilburn 2017* - Kilburn MR, Cannon JS. Home visiting and use of infant health care: A randomized clinical trial. Pediatrics. 2017;139(1):e20161274.

Selph 2013 - Selph SS, Bougatsos C, Blazina I, Nelson HD. Behavioral interventions and counseling to prevent child abuse and neglect: A systematic review to update the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2013;158(3):179–90.

Sharps 2016* - Sharps PW, Bullock LF, Campbell JC, et al. Domestic violence enhanced perinatal home visits: The DOVE randomized clinical trial. Journal of Women’s Health. 2016;25(11):1129-1138.

Stargel 2018 - Stargel, L. E., Fauth, R. C., & Easterbrooks, M. A. (2018). Home visiting program impacts on reducing homelessness among young mothers. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, 27(1), 89–92.

Sweet 2004* - Sweet MA, Appelbaum MI. Is home visiting an effective strategy? A meta-analytic review of home visiting programs for families with young children. Child Development. 2004;75(5):1435-56.

Tucker 2021* - Tucker CM, Felder TM, Dail RB, Lyndon A, Allen K-C. Group prenatal care and maternal outcomes: A scoping review. MCN: The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing. 2021;46(6):314-322.

WI DCF-FFHV - Wisconsin Department of Children & Families (WI DCF). Family Foundations Home Visiting Program (FFHV).

WI DHS-FFHV - Wisconsin Department of Health Services (WI DHS). Family Foundations Home Visiting Program (FFHV).

Wightman 2022 - Wightman, P., McCue, K., Sabo, S., Annorbah, R., Jiménez, D., Pilling, V., Butler, M., Celaya, M. F., & Rumann, S. (2022). Community health worker intervention improves early childhood vaccination rates: Results from a propensity-score matching evaluation. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 1854.