Mobile reproductive health clinics
Mobile reproductive health clinics are medically equipped vans staffed by clinicians that offer reproductive health services (e.g., pregnancy tests, prenatal and postpartum care, gynecological exams, sexually transmitted infection (STI) screenings, etc.), health education, and referrals to other clinical or social services. Vans can include a waiting room, private exam areas, an education area, and a laboratory, as well as monitors, diagnostic equipment, and educational materials (O'Connell 2010). They may also provide care in community spaces (Plan A). Mobile clinics typically serve populations at increased risk, such as individuals with low incomes or without insurance, in both urban and rural areas . Clinics may partner with or be part of health care systems, non-profits, or community agencies such as public health departments. Clinics are funded through private and public insurances, philanthropy, grants, patient payment (Sabo 2025), or federal funds (Malone 2020a).
Mobile reproductive health clinics are a subset of mobile health clinics, which are also sometimes called mobile health units or mobile medical units.
What could this strategy improve?
Expected Benefits
Our evidence rating is based on the likelihood of achieving these outcomes:
- Improved prenatal care
Potential Benefits
Our evidence rating is not based on these outcomes, but these benefits may also be possible:
- Reduced preterm birth
- Increased use of contraception
- Improved access to reproductive health care
- Increased STI testing
What does the research say about effectiveness? -+
There is some evidence that mobile reproductive health clinics increase initiation of prenatal care in the first trimester of pregnancy among Hispanic immigrants living in urban areas (O'Connell 2010, Edgerley 2007). However, additional research is needed to confirm effects and determine effects for other populations (Darling 2021).
A California-based study suggests that for Hispanic immigrants who have public insurance mobile health units may provide similar quality prenatal care as other community clinics (Edgerley 2007). A Florida-based study among populations who are largely uninsured and majority Hispanic immigrants suggests that, in some cases, patients at mobile reproductive clinics may be more likely to receive adequate prenatal care and less likely to deliver their babies preterm than those who receive care at other clinics (O'Connell 2010). A mobile reproductive health clinic regularly visiting substance use recovery centers may increase use of contraception among patients with substance use disorder who are seeking treatment (Hurley 2023); experts suggest such units may also be used to reach other patients who are not yet in treatment through correctional facilities or courts (Urban-Johnston 2022). Offering reproductive health care in mobile clinics may remove barriers to providing reproductive care, including distribution of birth control and sexual health education, to adolescents in disadvantaged neighborhoods (Stefansson 2018).
Mobile health clinics offering other specialty care or services can provide some of the same services as mobile reproductive health clinics, such as a mobile primary care clinic providing contraception (including LARCs) (Stumbar 2020) or a mobile unit being used as part of a harm reduction initiative for people who inject drugs providing services such as HIV testing and pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) (Page 2024). Mobile health clinics can reach a variety of populations at higher risk (Yu 2017, Hill 2014a), including immigrants (Phelan 2024, Gibson 2017, O'Connell 2010, Edgerley 2007), individuals with substance use disorders (Page 2024, Hurley 2023, Gibson 2017, Martin 2014), and those with unstable housing (NFPRH-Mobile health units).
Mobile health units are a significant investment and have ongoing costs that vary based on staffing, services, and miles traveled (MHM-Costs 2023). Experts suggest that when starting a mobile health program, organizations should consider where funding will come from and where to procure units, what staffing needs will be, what services and medications will be available, connecting to community partners and determining locations, as well as ongoing costs and return on investment expectations (NFPRH-Mobile health units). The average return on investment for mobile health clinics is estimated to be 18 to 1 (MHM). Primary care mobile health units expanding their family planning services to include LARCs may require new equipment, procedures, and provider training (Nall 2019).
No research is available on the use of mobile health clinics in accessing permanent contraception, particularly vasectomies (which is usually an outpatient procedure), or in abortion care (Kaur 2023).
How could this strategy advance health equity? This strategy is rated potential to decrease disparities: suggested by expert opinion. -+
Mobile reproductive health clinics are a suggested strategy to decrease disparities in access to reproductive health care for people in rural and underserved communities, including those with low incomes, from racialized backgrounds, or individuals from sexual minority populations (Sabo 2025, NFPRH-Mobile health units, Kaur 2023).
Mobile reproductive health clinics appear to reach those they intended to help, including those who are living in maternity care deserts (March of Dimes-Hardy 2022), who are low income (Edgerley 2007, O'Connell 2010), who are uninsured (March of Dimes-Hardy 2022, O'Connell 2010) or on public insurance (Edgerley 2007), and Hispanic immigrants (Edgerley 2007, O'Connell 2010), as well as Indigenous populations (Phelan 2024).
In general, approximately 65% of patients at mobile health clinics are from racially minoritized groups and most are either uninsured or on public insurance programs (MHM). Surveys of the populations served by mobile health units suggest providers should provide culturally competent care and practice cultural humility (de Peralta 2019).
The maternal mortality rate in the U.S. is higher than in any other developed country (Tucker 2021), and there are stark disparities within the U.S.. Pregnancy-related mortality is three times higher for Black women, and two times higher for American Indian and Alaska Native women compared to their white counterparts; maternal death rates and racial disparities increased during the COVID-19 pandemic (KFF-Hill 2022). Negative birth outcomes, including preterm birth, low birthweight, and infant mortality, are higher among Black births than white births (Mehra 2017), and preterm birth is higher for all births in counties lacking obstetric (OB) care (March of Dimes-Brigance 2022).
Rurality is associated with increased pregnancy-related mortality compared to urban areas, particularly for women who are Black or American Indian and Alaska Native (ASPE-Knocke 2022, Merkt 2021), as well as with reduced access to OB services, particularly for women who are American Indian and Alaska Native (Thorsen 2022). Many pregnant people in rural areas, particularly in the Midwest or the South, live in counties with no obstetricians or maternity care centers, severely restricting their access to care (March of Dimes-Brigance 2022). Women who are immigrants are less likely to access prenatal care (Zaidi 2024), particularly women who are undocumented (Korinek 2011).
What is the relevant historical background? -+
Access to obstetric (OB) care has been declining in rural counties since at least 2004 (NRHA-Waldman 2024). As of 2022, 52.4% of rural hospitals did not provide OB care compared to 35.7% of urban hospitals, though both saw drops in availability (Kozhimannil 2025). From 2010 to 2024, 171 rural hospitals closed or stopped offering inpatient services altogether (NRHA-Waldman 2024). Rural OB care faces a variety of financial barriers, including high staffing costs, workforce shortages, and low Medicaid reimbursement rates. Medicaid covers nearly half of all rural births, while its reimbursement rate for births is half the rate of private insurers (NRHA-Waldman 2024).
The Federal Housing Administration’s redlining practices concentrated poverty (Kaplan 2007) and entrenched racial residential segregation in the U.S., resulting in fewer health care facilities, resources, and funding in urban areas with largely Black populations (Lee 2023, Lee 2022c). Segregation continues to be associated with increased risk of preterm birth and low birthweight for patients who are Black, with risks increasing as segregation in neighborhoods increases (Mehra 2017).
Mobile health units originated in World War II and were adopted by civilian populations after the war (FORRAD-MMU). In the U.S., mobile health clinics have been providing free and reduced-cost care to historically marginalized communities for decades (Coaston 2022), such as La Clinica de los Campesinos in Wisconsin, which bought its first mobile health clinic in the 1970s to provide seasonal care to migrant farmworkers (Noble Community Clinics-History). The number of mobile health clinics has grown significantly over the last thirty years. They were heavily used during the COVID-19 pandemic and many are now being converted into full-service community health centers (MHM-Williams 2024). Community health centers are increasingly investing in mobile health clinics (Sabo 2025), and in 2023, the MOBILE Healthcare Act changed grant funding rules to allow the use of federal funds to expand services by buying mobile medical units to open mobile clinics (Sabo 2025).
Equity Considerations -+
- What disparities in birth and maternal outcomes exist in your community? What groups are most affected?
- What reproductive health care resources are available in your community? Are certain groups less able to access the care and services available?
- What are the barriers to offering high quality, linguistically and culturally appropriate reproductive health care?
Implementation Examples -+
As of 2025, there are estimated to be 3,000 mobile clinics, which host up to 10 million visits per year, including reproductive health visits, in rural and urban communities. Over 1,300 of them are registered with Mobile Health Map, including 146 that provide sexual and reproductive health care as part of their offerings, and 125 which provide maternal and infant health services, with some overlap between the two groups (MHM).
Rural examples include Plan A mobile clinics that provide free sexual and reproductive health care and basic primary care in the Mississippi Delta and southwest Georgia (Plan A). In rural Alabama, the Mothers of Gynecology Wellness Pod provides care, education, and assistance to current and expectant mothers who are Black, underinsured, or uninsured (MoG pod). In Texas, the Healthy Mujeres Unimóvil provides prenatal and preventive services to uninsured and underinsured women in the Rio Grande Valley (Healthy Mujeres). The University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences Institute for Community Health Innovation has mobile units providing prenatal care, contraception, and other women’s health services to rural areas in Arkansas (UAMS-Mobile health services).
Some services bridge both rural and urban locations, such as Ohio Health’s Wellness on Wheels mobile unit that provides primary care, women’s health services, and prenatal care in central and southeast Ohio, regardless of ability to pay (OH-WoW). Planned Parenthood of Greater New York operates Project Street Beat, providing services to people of all genders in urban and suburban locations in New York City and Nassau County, including contraception, STI and HIV testing, pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), counseling, and links patients to other sexual and reproductive health services (PPNY-Project Street Beat). Other urban examples include New York City’s mobile health vans (CHN-Mobile) and Boston’s Family Van, which has been providing care since 1992 (Family Van).
Federal New Access Points grant funding, which is used to fund new primary care sites for medically underserved populations, can now be used to fund mobile health units (HRSA-NAP grant).
Implementation Resources -+
MHM - Mobile health map (MHM). Mobile clinic impact tracker.
NFPRH - Alternative modes of care delivery interventions. (n.d.). National Family Planning & Reproductive Health Association. Retrieved September 4, 2025.
Williams 2023 - Williams, M. M., Bui, S. T., Lin, J. S., Fan, G. H., & Oriol, N. E. (2023). Health care leaders’ perspectives on the business impact of mobile health clinics. International Journal for Equity in Health, 22(1), 173.
Citations -+
* Journal subscription may be required for access.
ASPE-Knocke 2022 - Knocke K, Chappel A, Sugar S, De Lew N, Sommers BD. Doula care and maternal health: An evidence review. Issue Brief no. HP-2022-24. Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation (ASPE), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2022.
CHN-Mobile - Community Healthcare Network. Medical mobile van.
Coaston 2022 - Coaston, A., Lee, S.-J., Johnson, J., Hardy-Peterson, M., Weiss, S., & Stephens, C. (2022). Mobile medical clinics in the United States post-Affordable Care Act: An integrative review. Population Health Management, 25(2), 264–279.
Darling 2021* - Darling, E. K., Kjell, C., Tubman-Broeren, M., & Marquez, O. (2021). The effect of prenatal care delivery models targeting populations with low rates of PNC attendance: A systematic review. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 32(1), 119–136.
de Peralta 2019* - de Peralta, A. M., Gillispie, M., Mobley, C., & Gibson, L. M. (2019). It’s all about trust and respect: Cultural competence and cultural humility in mobile health clinic services for underserved minority populations. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 30(3), 1103–1118.
Edgerley 2007* - Edgerley LP, El-Sayed YY, Druzin ML, Kiernan M, Daniels KI. Use of a community mobile health van to increase early access to prenatal care. Maternal and Child Health Journal. 2007;11(3):235-239.
Family Van - The Family Van. Promoting healthy communities in Boston since 1992.
FORRAD-MMU - Venkatesh, A. (2019, September 21). Mobile Medical Units: In History and Beyond. Foundation for Rural Recovery and Development (FORRAD).
Froedtert-MMC - Froedtert & the Medical College of Wisconsin. (n.d.). Maternal Mobile Clinic. Retrieved September 4, 2025.
Gibson 2017* - Gibson BA, Morano JP, Walton MR, et al. Innovative program delivery and determinants of frequent visitation to a mobile medical clinic in an urban setting. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved. 2017;28(2):643-662.
Healthy Mujeres - Healthy Mujeres. (n.d.). The University of Texas System. Retrieved September 4, 2025.
Hill 2014a - Hill CF, Powers BW, Jain SH, et al. Mobile health clinics in the era of reform. The American Journal of Managed Care. 2014;20(3):261-264.
HRSA-NAP grant - Apply for FY25 New Access Points. (2025, March). Health Resources & Services Administration (HRSA).
Hurley 2023 - Hurley, E. A., Goggin, K., Piña-Brugman, K., Noel-MacDonnell, J. R., Allen, A., Finocchario-Kessler, S., & Miller, M. K. (2023). Contraception use among individuals with substance use disorder increases tenfold with patient-centered, mobile services: A quasi-experimental study. Harm Reduction Journal, 20(1), 28.
Kaplan 2007* - Kaplan J, Valls A. Housing discrimination as a basis for Black reparations. Public Affairs Quarterly. 2007;21(3):255-273.
Kaur 2023* - Kaur, S., & Lathrop, E. (2023). Mobile programs in family planning. Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 35(6), 501.
KFF-Hill 2022 - Hill L, Artiga S, Ranji U. Racial disparities in maternal and infant health: Current status and efforts to address them. KFF. 2022.
Korinek 2011 - Korinek, K., & Smith, K. R. (2011). Prenatal care among immigrant and racial-ethnic minority women in a new immigrant destination: Exploring the impact of immigrant legal status. Social Science & Medicine, 72(10), 1695–1703.
Kozhimannil 2025 - Kozhimannil, K. B., Interrante, J. D., Carroll, C., Sheffield, E. C., Fritz, A. H., McGregor, A. J., & Handley, S. C. (2025). Obstetric care access at rural and urban hospitals in the United States. JAMA, 333(2), 166–169.
Lee 2022c* - Lee EK, Donley G, Ciesielski TH, et al. Health outcomes in redlined versus non-redlined neighborhoods: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Social Science and Medicine. 2022;294:114696.
Lee 2023* - Lee EK, Donley G, Ciesielski TH, Freedman DA, Cole MB. Spatial availability of federally qualified health centers and disparities in health services utilization in medically underserved areas. Social Science and Medicine. 2023;328:116009.
Malone 2020a - Malone, N. C., Williams, M. M., Smith Fawzi, M. C., Bennet, J., Hill, C., Katz, J. N., & Oriol, N. E. (2020). Mobile health clinics in the United States. International Journal for Equity in Health, 19(1), 40.
March of Dimes-Brigance 2022 - Brigance C, Lucas R, Jones E, et al. Nowhere to go: Maternity care deserts across the U.S. (Report No. 3). March of Dimes; 2022.
March of Dimes-Hardy 2022 - Hardy, K., Flax, C., Schmidt, E., Mishkin, K., Mpare, M., Greenberg, A., Aquino, T., & Henderson, Z. (2022, September). Better starts for all case study. March of Dimes.
Martin 2014* - Martin CE, Terplan M, Han J, Chaulk P, Serio-Chapman C. Contraception continuation among female exotic dancers seeking mobile reproductive health services concurrent with syringe exchange. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2014;140:e135.
Mehra 2017* - Mehra R, Boyd LM, Ickovics JR. Racial segregation and adverse birth outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Social Science & Medicine. 2017;191:237-250.
Merkt 2021 - Merkt, P. T., Kramer, M. R., Goodman, D. A., Brantley, M. D., Barrera, C. M., Eckhaus, L., & Petersen, E. E. (2021). Urban-rural differences in pregnancy-related deaths, United States, 2011–2016. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 225(2), 183.e1-183.e16.
MHM - Mobile health map (MHM). Mobile clinic impact tracker.
MHM-Costs 2023 - How much does it cost to run a mobile clinic? (2023, January 27). Mobile Health Map at Harvard Medical School.
MHM-Williams 2024 - Williams, M. (2024, February 22). Mobile clinics fill critical gaps in care. Our communities need them now more than ever. Mobile Health Map at Harvard Medical School.
MoG pod - Mothers of gynecology wellness pod: A mobile maternal health support unit. (n.d.). Anarcha Lucy Betsey - The Mothers of Gynecology. Retrieved September 4, 2025.
Nall 2019* - Nall, M., O’Connor, S., Hopper, T., Peterson, H., & Mahajan, B. (2019). Community women and reproductive autonomy: Building an infrastructure for long-acting reversible contraception (LARC) services in a mobile health clinic. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 30(1), 47–58.
NFPRH-Mobile health units - Mobile health units: A strategy to increase access to family planning and sexual health services. (n.d.). National Family Planning & Reproductive Health Association. Retrieved September 5, 2025.
Noble Community Clinics-History - Our History. (n.d.). Noble Community Clinics. Retrieved September 5, 2025.
NRHA-Waldman 2024 - Waldman, H., & Zimmerman, A. (2024, February). Maternal health in rural America. National Rural Health Association.
O'Connell 2010* - O’Connell E, Zhang G, Leguen F, Prince J. Impact of a mobile van on prenatal care utilization and birth outcomes in Miami-Dade County. Maternal and Child Health Journal. 2010;14(4):528-534.
OH-WoW - Wellness on Wheels. (n.d.). OhioHealth. Retrieved September 5, 2025.
Page 2024* - Page, K. R., Weir, B. W., Zook, K., Rosecrans, A., Harris, R., Grieb, S. M., Falade-Nwulia, O., Landry, M., Escobar, W., Ramirez, M. P., Saxton, R. E., Clarke, W. A., Sherman, S. G., & Lucas, G. M. (2024). Integrated care van delivery of evidence-based services for people who inject drugs: A cluster-randomized trial. Addiction, 119(7), 1276–1288.
Phelan 2024* - Phelan, S., Tseng, M., Kelleher, A., Kim, E., Macedo, C., Charbonneau, V., Gilbert, I., Parro, D., & Rawlings, L. (2024). Increasing access to medical care for hispanic women without insurance: A mobile clinic approach. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 26(3), 482–491.
Plan A - PLAN A. (n.d.). Health care on wheels. PLAN A Health, Inc. Mississippi. Retrieved September 5, 2025.
PPNY-Project Street Beat - Project Street Beat. (n.d.). Planned Parenthood of Greater New York. Retrieved September 5, 2025.
Sabo 2025* - Sabo, K., Herring, E., Clock, C., Bell, J. G., & Reidy, P. (2025). Exploring mobile health clinics: A scoping review. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 36(1), 1–20.
Stefansson 2018* - Stefansson LS, Webb ME, Hebert LE, Masinter L, Gilliam ML. MOBILE-izing adolescent sexual and reproductive health care: A pilot study using a mobile health unit in Chicago. Journal of School Health. 2018;88(3):208-216.
Stumbar 2020* - Stumbar, S. E., Garba, N. A., Bhoite, P., Ravelo, N., & Shringarpure, N. (2020). Pilot study of a free long-acting reversible contraception program on a mobile health center in Miami Dade County, Florida. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 22(2), 421–425.
Thorsen 2022 - Thorsen, M. L., Harris, S., McGarvey, R., Palacios, J., & Thorsen, A. (2022). Evaluating disparities in access to obstetric services for American Indian women across Montana. The Journal of Rural Health : Official Journal of the American Rural Health Association and the National Rural Health Care Association, 38(1), 151–160.
Tucker 2021* - Tucker CM, Felder TM, Dail RB, Lyndon A, Allen K-C. Group prenatal care and maternal outcomes: A scoping review. MCN: The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing. 2021;46(6):314-322.
UAMS-Mobile health services - Mobile Health Services. (n.d.). University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (UAMS) Institute for Community Health Innovation. Retrieved September 5, 2025.
Urban-Johnston 2022 - Johnston, E. M., Courtot, B., Burroughs, E., Benatar, S., & Hill, I. (2022). Access to reproductive health care for women in treatment for substance use disorder. Urban Institute.
Yu 2017 - Yu SWY, Hill C, Ricks ML, Bennet J, Oriol NE. The scope and impact of mobile health clinics in the United States: A literature review. International Journal for Equity in Health. 2017;16:178.
Zaidi 2024 - Zaidi, M., Fantasia, H. C., Penders, R., Koren, A., & Enah, C. (2024). Increasing U.S. maternal health equity among immigrant populations through community engagement. Nursing for Women’s Health, 28(1), 11–22.