Career & technical education for high school completion

There is strong evidence that career and technical education (CTE) for at-risk students improves high school completion rates (CG-HS Completion, Campbell-Wilson 2011, Dougherty 2018a, Dougherty 2016, Xing 2021, Gottfried 2018). Participation in CTE courses, especially as a concentrated program of study, may also increase students’ postsecondary education, employment, and earnings (Dougherty 2016, Neumark 2009, Kreisman 2020). Additional evidence is needed to confirm long-term labor market effects.

On average, vocational training increases high school completion rates among students at risk of dropping out by 16% (CG-HS Completion). Many studies suggest CTE programs have the greatest effects on on-time high school completion and earnings for male students and students from families with low incomes (MDRC-CTE 2019, Dougherty 2016, Dougherty 2018a). A Connecticut-based study of CTE-focused high schools reports positive effects on school attendance, test scores, high school completion, and earnings for male participants only (Brookings-Brunner 2019). However, one study suggests students with higher income backgrounds may benefit more from attending CTE-focused high schools than peers with lower income backgrounds (Dougherty 2018a).

An Arkansas-based study suggests students with a concentrated CTE program of study are more likely to graduate from high school than students in CTE without a concentration (Dougherty 2016). Taking more STEM-related CTE courses can reduce the likelihood of school absences and chronic absenteeism (Plasman 2020). CTE courses taken later in high school (11th & 12th grades) may have greater effects on increased on-time completion and reduced dropout than courses taken earlier in high school (Gottfried 2018). Participation in CTE coursework can increase on-time high school completion due to increased school engagement and perceived value of high school education (Xing 2021).

Students with disabilities can benefit from CTE programs; for these students taking more CTE coursework in comprehensive high schools or attending CTE-focused schools can increase the likelihood of high school completion (Dougherty 2018b). Participation in a concentrated CTE program can increase the likelihood of on-time high school completion for students with learning disabilities (Theobald 2019) and the likelihood of employment for students with learning disabilities and emotional disturbances compared to peers who are not enrolled in such a concentration (Theobald 2019, Wagner 2017).

Students who complete occupation-specific vocational courses or tracks realize increases in earnings up to 7 years post-graduation, while students who complete non-specific vocational courses do not realize greater earnings (Meer 2007, Bishop 2004). Participation in upper-level CTE coursework is associated with increased earnings, whereas taking introductory CTE coursework appears to have no impact (Kreisman 2020). Attending CTE-focused high schools may increase the likelihood of earning a certificate for industry-specific skills (Dougherty 2018a). School-to-work initiatives that combine academic and vocational education such as CTE programs can increase post-high school employment (Neumark 2009).

Successful CTE programs identify high-growth industries, align CTE courses to specific skills and credentials, encourage CTE concentrations, and make high school CTE credits count towards specific postsecondary credentials (Dougherty 2016). Improving access to high-quality CTE schools and programs, creating consistent work-based learning opportunities, and providing accessible information about careers to guide students' choices are also recommended for successful CTE programs (CRPE-Heyward 2019). Implementation challenges such as staffing or funding difficulties, and low program attendance or completion rates, can reduce the effectiveness of vocational training programs (Campbell-Wilson 2011).

There is some evidence that career and technical education (CTE) programs can have mixed impacts on disparities in high school completion and employment outcomes, decreasing disparities between students from families with high and low incomes but increasing disparities between male and female students. Students from families with low incomes enroll and benefit more from CTE courses compared to students from families with higher incomes (Dougherty 2016, MDRC-CTE 2019, Dougherty 2018a). However, some studies show that male students participate in and benefit from the programs more than female students (Brookings-Brunner 2019, MDRC-CTE 2019, Dougherty 2016). Students with disabilities who participate in CTE programs are more likely to graduate on-time from high school and be employed than students with disabilities who don’t participate (Dougherty 2018b, Theobald 2019, Wagner 2017). A report on students enrolled in CTE programs in 2020 across 40 states indicates that white students took CTE courses more than non-white students and Black and Hispanic students had less access to programs focused on STEM fields, which often lead to high paying jobs (Hechinger-CTE 2021).

The Smith-Hughes National Vocational Education Act of 1917 made the first federal investment in secondary vocational education for agriculture, homemaking, and trade and industrial education. In the 1960s, the federal government expanded funding for vocational education to all students, including students with academic and economic disadvantage and students with disabilities (ACTE-History). The Vocational Education Amendments of 1976 aimed to eliminate sex stereotyping and discrimination in vocational education and promote equal opportunities for female students (Stromquist 1993). In 2006, vocational education officially changed its name to career and technical education (CTE) in the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act (Perkins IV). Historically, vocational education was criticized for detracting minority students and students from families with low incomes away from college and into low-wage work (AEI-Malkus 2019, MDRC-Lewy). New CTE concentrations intend to support nontraditional career preparation and focus on STEM and STEM-related fields in response to changes in economic and social conditions as well as labor market demand (Sublett 2019, Harris 2020). However, the percentage of high schools that provide STEM concentrations vary widely by state (US ED-CTE data story) and more efforts are needed to remove systemic barriers and bias in education for equity in CTE (NAPE-CTE STEM).

• How can CTE programs tailor recruitment to enroll more female and racial minority students?
• What career guidance can CTE programs provide students to keep them in programs through graduation?
• How can CTE programs partner with local or regional employers to ensure adequate employment opportunities after graduation?
• What resources are needed to hire qualified teachers and purchase essential equipment for high quality courses in growing fields like STEM?

During the 2016-17 school year, 98% of traditional public school districts offer career and technical education (CTE) courses, and 77% have work-based learning opportunities such as on-the-job training, internships, and clinical experiences (US ED-CTE data story).

The Strengthening Career and Technical Education for the 21st Century Act, known as Perkins V, is the primary source of federal funds to support secondary and postsecondary CTE programs in all 50 states and Washington, D.C. (PCRN-Legislation). Perkins V also funds the Native American Career and Technical Education Program which awards American Indian tribes, tribal organizations, Alaska Native entities, and eligible Bureau of Indian Affairs-funded schools to provide CTE programs for native students (PCRN-NACTEP). State governments can also support vocational education programs with policies to improve career readiness and align CTE with the labor market, as in Arkansas and Massachusetts (Dougherty 2016, MA-CTE).

National non-profits offer vocational programs that are designed to complement academic efforts to earn a high school diploma or a GED. Job Corps, for example, has training centers in all 50 states, Washington, D.C., and Puerto Rico (Job Corps). Making Schools Work, a comprehensive school improvement effort for student career pathways, has been implemented in thousands of schools and includes career and technical education (SREB-MSW).

Multi-sector partnerships also support CTE programs. For example, Boston area professionals and enthusiasts in various fields and local universities and businesses support STEAM Ahead (science, technology, engineering, arts, and math), which offers courses, project-based learning, and workshops for area students students (STEAM Ahead).

PCRN-CTE resources - U.S. Department of Education (U.S. ED), Division of Academic and Technical Education, Perkins Collaborative Resource Network (PCRN). Perkins V: Tools and insights for career and technical education.

US ED-CTE statistics - U.S. Department of Education (U.S. ED), Institute of Educational Sciences (IES), National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Career and technical education (CTE) statistics: Secondary or high school level tables and figures.

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ACTE-CTE - Association for Career & Technical Education (ACTE). Why CTE (career and technical education)?

ACTE-History - Association for Career and Technical Education (ACTE). History of career and technical education (CTE).

ACTE-WI CTE 2022 - Association for Career & Technical Education (ACTE). CTE in Wisconsin fact sheet. March 2022.

AEI-Malkus 2019 - Malkus N. The evolution of career and technical education: 1982-2013. Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute (AEI); 2019.

Bishop 2004* - Bishop JH, Mane F. The impacts of career-technical education on high school labor market success. Economics of Education Review. 2004;23(4):381-402.

Brookings-Brunner 2019 - Brunner E, Dougherty S, Ross S. The promise of career and technical education. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution; 2019.

Campbell-Wilson 2011 - Wilson SJ, Tanner-Smith EE, Lipsey MW, Steinka-Fry KT, Morrison J. Dropout prevention and intervention programs: Effects on school completion and dropout among school-aged children and youth: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews. 2011:8.

CG-HS Completion - The Guide to Community Preventive Services (The Community Guide). High school completion programs.

CRPE-Heyward 2019 - Heyward G. Schools lead the way but the system must change: Rethinking career and technical education. Seattle, WA: The Center on Reinventing Public Education (CRPE); 2019.

Dougherty 2016 - Dougherty SM, Petrilli MJ, Zeehandelaar D. Career and technical education in high school: Does it improve student outcomes? Washington, D.C.: Thomas B. Fordham Institute; 2016.

Dougherty 2018a - Dougherty SM. The effect of career and technical education on human capital accumulation: Causal evidence from Massachusetts. Education Finance and Policy. 2018;13(2):119-148.

Dougherty 2018b* - Dougherty SM, Grindal T, Hehir T. The impact of career and technical education on students with disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies. 2018;29(2):108-118.

Gottfried 2018* - Gottfried MA, Plasman JS. Linking the timing of career and technical education coursetaking with high school dropout and college-going behavior. American Educational Research Journal. 2018;55(2):325-361.

Harris 2020 - Harris JC, Warner MT, Yee K, Wilkerson SB. Assessing the alignment between West Virginia’s high school career and technical education programs and the labor market. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Appalachia. 2020.

Hechinger-CTE 2021 - Butrymowicz S. First nationwide look at racial breakdown of career education confirms deep divides. The Hechinger Report. September 2021.

Job Corps - Job Corps. A U.S. Department of Labor web site.

Kreisman 2020 - Kreisman D, Stange K. Vocational and career tech education in American high schools: The value of depth over breadth. Education Finance and Policy. 2020;15(1):11-44.

MA-CTE - Massachusetts Department of Elementary and Secondary Education. State-approved career technical education (CTE).

MDRC-CTE 2019 - Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation (MDRC), Results for America. What works in career and technical education: Evidence underlying programs and policies that work. 2019.

MDRC-Lewy - Lewy EB. Learning from the past: The evolution of vocational education. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation (MDRC); 2021.

Meer 2007* - Meer J. Evidence on the returns to secondary vocational education. Economics of Education Review. 2007;26(5):559-573.

NAPE-CTE STEM - Burbank C, Romanillos R, Williams B. Equity in CTE & STEM root causes and strategies: A call to action. PA: NAPE Education Foundation, Inc.; 2021.

Neumark 2009 - Neumark D. Alternative labor market policies to increase economic self-sufficiency: Mandating higher wages, subsidizing employment, and increasing productivity. National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). 2009: Working Paper 14807.

PCRN-Legislation - U.S. Department of Education (U.S. ED), Division of Academic and Technical Education, Perkins Collaborative Resource Network (PCRN). Legislation: Perkins V.

PCRN-NACTEP - U.S. Department of Education (U.S. ED), Division of Academic and Technical Education, Perkins Collaborative Resource Network (PCRN). Native American Career and Technical Education Program (NACTEP).

Plasman 2020* - Plasman JS, Gottfried MA. School absence in the United States: Understanding the role of STEM-related vocational education and training in encouraging attendance. Journal of Vocational Education and Training. 2020:1-23.

SREB-MSW - Southern Regional Education Board (SREB). Connecting classrooms, careers and college: SREB’s Making Schools Work school improvement process. July 2019.

STEAM Ahead - STEAM Ahead. Pathways: STEAM (Science, technology, engineering, arts, and math) in the Greater Boston Area.

Stromquist 1993* - Stromquist NP. Sex-equity legislation in education: The state as promoter of women’s rights. Review of Educational Research. 1993;63(4):379-407.

Sublett 2019 - Sublett C, Griffith D. How aligned is career and technical education to local labor markets? Washington, D.C.: Thomas B. Fordham Institute; 2019.

Theobald 2019* - Theobald RJ, Goldhaber DD, Gratz TM, Holden KL. Career and technical education, inclusion, and postsecondary outcomes for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities. 2019;52(2):109-119.

US ED-CTE data story - U.S. Department of Education (U.S. ED). Bridging the skills gap: Career and technical education in high school. September 2019.

Wagner 2017* - Wagner MM, Newman LA, Javitz HS. Vocational education course taking and post-high school employment of youth with emotional disturbances. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals. 2017;40(3):132-143.

WI DPI-CTE - Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction (WI DPI). Career & Technical Education (CTE): Learning that works for Wisconsin.

Xing 2021* - Xing X, Gordon HRD. Mediating effects of school engagement between high school on-time completion and career and technical education. Vocations and Learning. 2021;14:1-21.